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Oasis in the Deep Sea: Hydrothermal Vents

The deep sea is so different from other ecosystems on Earth, it’s almost like another planet! In fact, the deep sea is so isolated and mysterious that we know more about the Moon than we do about the ocean floor. Deep-sea hydrothermal vents, also called “black smokers,” are areas along the seafloor that discharge scalding hot water. They are located near areas of high tectonic activity and volcanic sites, commonly near mid-ocean ridges (MORs). These black smokers are important because they host a variety of exotic organisms, can help us to understand hydrothermal processes along mid-ocean ridges, and have economic importance. In 1976, a series of temperature spikes were observed by scientists exploring a mid-ocean ridge near the Galapagos Rift. From this data, scientists discovered hydrothermal vents, along with new ecosystems and species within these vent systems. The vents were first observed through a seafloor imaging system, in which a camera is submerged in water to take photos of the observation target, and the images are used to create seafloor maps. The first direct observations occurred when a manned submersible, The Alvin, was used to observe and sample the vents and their ecosystems. There was great fascination with this discovery since up until this point scientists thought that life required sunlight to exist. But here there was a thriving ecosystem that found its own source of energy devoid of light. Black smokers are probably the last place you would expect to find life, since they spew toxic material and there is absolutely no light. These eerie vents, however, are home to complex ecosystems with a thriving community of biotic creatures. At the base of the food chain there are bacteria and Archaea, which produce energy through chemosynthesis. Chemosynthesis is a life-process where inorganic carbon is converted into carbohydrates using inorganic molecules. Chemosynthesis involves using energy released by inorganic chemical reactions to produce food. These inorganic reactions include inorganic compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide or hydrogen gas undergoing oxidation, acting as the energy source. Many kinds of chemosynthesis occur, as there are different kinds of bacteria that can oxidize substances varying from sulphur to methane, even iron, and manganese. This variety of bacteria form the base of a food chain that includes deep-sea clams, mussels, and giant tube worm species. These species live in symbiosis with the chemosynthetic bacteria and would not exist without this relationship. Viruses discovered in these environments interact with bacteria. Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) is a process in which a virus implants some of its DNA into a bacteria, reaping some of the bacteria’s DNA. Viruses have the power to alter the bacteria’s gene expression, giving the virus the unique ability to carry different kinds of genetic information, which is useful in such extreme environments. This allows the bacteria to survive in ever-changing environments. HGT occurs due to the number of bacteria and viruses suspended in these environments and is important to the species’ evolution. The type of vent, distance from the vent, and lifetime stage of the vent are all factors that dramatically change the temperature and mineral concentration of the region. For bacteria to survive, they need to be able to adapt relatively quickly to rapidly changing habitats. HGT allows the bacteria to survive in its new environment and produce versatile offspring. The geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere are the three main Earth systems that interact with hydrothermal vents. Since there is no sunlight for life processes in hydrothermal vent ecosystems, the energy required by living organisms is gained from tectonic movement near the MORs. Water seeps into the ridges, is heated by magma, then mixes with minerals. Fine-grained sulphide minerals containing metals such as copper, zinc, lead, gold, and silver from the Earth’s crust are dissolved in high concentrations in hot hydrothermal fluids. When these metal sulphides are exposed to cold ocean water, they form black chimney-like sulphide deposits around each vent, hence the name black smoker. The water that is ejected contains methane and sulphides; substances required for chemosynthesis. The nature of chemosynthesis illustrates how intertwined Earth’s systems are; the removal of the biosphere would nullify the existence of such a fascinating ecosystem. Hydrothermal vents contain exotic ecosystems threatened by the prospect of deep-sea mining. Deep-sea mining is becoming a popular consideration for mineral exploitation as the popularity of land mining is rapidly diminishing land-based ore deposits. Mineral ore deposits are composed of fine-grained sulphide minerals containing metals. Although deep-sea mining may benefit the economy due to the abundance of ore deposits, there is controversy about destroying these ecosystems. Some argue that mining near black smoker active volcanic sites is reasonable because the volcanoes will erupt across many square metres of the seafloor, causing destruction in these sites. Environmental advantages for deep-sea mining, as opposed to land-mining, results in no waste rock, no acid mine drainage, and no holes in the ground that could contribute to seismic activity. Deep-sea hydrothermal vents are vital to both marine ecosystems and mineral ore deposits for deep-sea mining. They contain ecosystems hosting many organisms using exotic life processes to create energy such as chemosynthesis, as well as hosting mineral ore deposits. These hydrothermal vent ecosystems are vital to the environment. Developing ecofriendly deep-sea mining technologies could be important for preserving deep-sea ecosystems. Kathryn Cheng is an undergraduate student at the University of Toronto, pursuing a B.Sc in Geology and Chemistry. She has an interest in hydrothermal vent systems and isotope geochemistry. She is currently conducting research in the Metal Isotope and Isotope Biochemistry Lab at UofT investigating mercury contamination from artisanal small-scale gold mining in South America. Kathryn is the President of the Undergraduate Earth Sciences Association at UofT and the Women in Mining UofT student chapter.

A landscape view of the coast of Lake Superior. Evergreen trees on light coloured rock are in the foreground, with the blue-green water in the background. In this distance Bathtub Island can be seen. Text overtop of the photo says: "Geoscience Today. Rocks and Water: 8 of the best places to climb and swim in Ontario"

Rocks and Water: 7 of the Best Places to Climb and Swim in Ontario

Want to enjoy the last few weeks of summer? Check out these gorgeous locations around Ontario for scenic swims, natural rock slides, turquoise water, limestone cliffs, old quarries, and more! Take our fun quiz to see where you should go to enjoy the natural landscape this summer. Learn a bit more about each of the locations: St. Mary’s Quarry: St. Mary’s Quarry is a great place to swim on a hot day, but if you’re looking for more of an adventure, this old quarry also has cliff jumping, stand up paddle boarding, a volleyball court, and a massive waterpark. St. Mary’s was a limestone Quarry that closed in 1920 and has since been converted to an adventurous swimming hole. Elora Quarry, Elora: This old limestone quarry is surrounded by impressive cliffs with a large sandy beach and turquoise water. Although it can get pretty busy here on weekends, there’s a rock outcrop you can swim to if you’re having trouble finding a spot to sunbathe. While you’re in Elora, check out the nearby Elora Gorge, formed from the same limestone and dolomite that makes up the quarry. If you look closely at the cliffs, you might see some fossils hidden in the sedimentary rocks! These fossils are 350-450 million years old, from a time when Ontario was covered in a warm shallow sea. Lake Kelso, Kelso Conservation Area: Lake Kelso is actually a manmade lake built for flood control of Sixteen Mile Creek. The calm and clear water makes it the perfect place to spend an afternoon. Relax on the sandy beach or go for a walk along the boardwalk. If you don’t have your own boat, Kelso Conservation area also rents canoes, kayaks, paddle boards, and paddle boats. Paradise Lagoon, near Wanapitei Provincial Park: Paradise Lagoon is a bit of a hike to get to, but the gorgeous blue water makes it so worth it. The lagoon is just outside of Wanapitei Provincial Park in Sudbury. The light blue water is surrounded by impressive quartzite and granite cliffs. The red quartzite that makes up this area as well as nearby Killarney Provincial Park creates a beautiful contrast with the emerald evergreen forest. Algonquin High Falls, Algonquin Provincial Park: Algonquin Provincial Park boasts many natural wonders, but one of my personal favourites is the natural water slide on the Barren River. Here you can slide down the smooth rocks under a foot or so of water into the swimming hole at the bottom. These granite rocks have been polished smooth by the continuous flow of water over time. To get to the falls you have to hike the High Falls Trail 4.5km to the chute. If you want to extend your stay, Algonquin Provincial Park has camping, canoeing, backpacking, hiking, and more. Bathtub Island, Lake Superior Provincial Park: Have you ever seen a natural infinity pool? Lake Superior Provincial Park has one! This pool on Bathtub island looks like something you’d see in the tropics. To get there you can walk a short distance from Highway 17, or hike the Coastal Trail to the shore. After that you have to wade through the water (or take a small boat) to the island to find the natural pool in the rocks. The water is shallow and warmed by the sun, making it the perfect place to relax for an afternoon. If you want to extend your stay, Lake Superior Provincial Park has great campsites you can book. Crooked Slide Park: The biggest draw to Crooked Slide Park is the reconstruction of an original log chute used by loggers in the early 1900s! Take a step back into Canadian History as you learn about logging and the use of log chutes to avoid log jams. Although a bit remote, the small waterfall and shallow water makes for a picturesque scene that is well worth the drive. Veronica Klassen is the Manager of the Foundation’s blog – Beneath Your Feet: A Geoscience Blog. She studied Arts and Science at McMaster University with a minor in Earth Science and has a masters in Science Communication from Laurentian University. She is passionate about making science accessible and engaging to the public.

The Niagara Escarpment in the distance at sunset. The cliff is surrounded by autumn coloured trees. On top of the photo text reads: "Geoscience Today. The Niagara Escarpment is crumbling- here's how, and why you should care."

The Niagara Escarpment is Crumbling—Here’s How, and Why You Should Care

If you visit or live near a geological landform, such as an escarpment, waterfall, or hillslope, you may notice that rock debris accumulates over time. Patrons of the Niagara Escarpment’s Bruce Trail, for instance, can observe rock blocks ranging from the size of a cell phone to a small car. To a hiker, fallen rock may not seem concerning. Yet what happens when geology meets urban infrastructure? The Niagara Escarpment is a large sedimentary landform which spans 400km across the northeastern United States and southern Ontario. Composed of dolostones, limestones, sandstones, and shales from the Paleozoic Era, its face is steep and heavily fractured. Each stratum, or layer, of rock has a unique composition which dictates its susceptibility to erosion. For instance, thick, resistant layers of the Irondequoit dolostone are often undercut by the softer Rochester shale which erode at a faster rate. This produces sharp overhangs which create angular blocks when there is not enough rock to support the overlying material. The escarpment bisects a number of urban areas, such as Hamilton, Ontario, where it is integrated into city infrastructure. This poses significant risks because the fractured escarpment face experiences frequent rockfalls which threaten the safety of citizens and have caused considerable infrastructure damage. For many years, the reason for the rapid weathering rates observed on the escarpment was unknown. New research has revealed the role of temperature changes in the development of fractures. How is the Escarpment Weathered? There are a variety of processes responsible for the weathering of rock, such as be chemical, mechanical (e.g., cracking), fluvial (e.g., flowing water), or biological (e.g., tree roots) in nature. However, the escarpment’s location in a temperate climate is unique because it is subject to cold winters and warm summers. This means that temperature plays a significant role in freeing rock from the escarpment face. Freeze-thaw weathering describes processes which create fractures in rock by causing water contained within pores or pre-existing cracks to freeze and thaw over time. When water freezes, it expands. This forces apart a body of rock from the interior, often producing stresses which exceed the strength of the rock. Freeze-thaw processes can occur within individual pores saturated with water, or on larger scales where ice lenses accumulate in pre-existing cracks. During the winter months, this form of weathering produces debris ranging from small flakes to large angular blocks. Thermal weathering is similar to freeze-thaw in that it involves fluctuations between warmer and cooler temperatures. Rock expands during warming and contracts during cooling, which causes the rock to deform throughout the day. Over time, these temperature cycles can create enough stress to cause fractures to develop. This is referred to as thermal fatigue, because each fluctuation is not individually powerful enough to fracture the rock, but over time the stresses accumulate. Conversely, thermal shock describes events of rapid temperature change (which can range from 1°C to over 10°C per minute) that induce high stresses as the rock expands or cools. This can cause instantaneous cracking. These weathering processes are not limited to geological landforms. Sidewalks, buildings, and even prehistoric rock art are all susceptible to temperature changes. How is Weathering Studied? At McMaster University, our research group studies these processes from a variety of perspectives. My work implements a network of remote temperature probes installed at exposed rock outcrops across the escarpment. At each site, probes are inserted into pre-existing fractures and affixed to the rock surface to measure temperature at one-minute intervals. This reveals changes on short time scales which enables us to identify thermal shock events and freeze-thaw cycles. By collecting data year-round, the temperature probes also provide information about the seasonality of fracturing. To assess the spatial distribution of weathering, an infrared thermal camera is employed which photographs differences in surface temperature across rock outcrops. Our group uses a rock trap (pictured below), to collect samples of falling rock generated by weathering processes. This is paired with drone-based 3D models which enable us to identify the rate of weathering and location in which blocks have fallen from the escarpment face. My research also involves climate modelling to predict future changes in weathering intensity using a suite of regional climate models. Climate Change Our research suggests that climate change may exacerbate weathering processes by increasing the range of temperatures experienced by rock throughout the day. In exposed rock faces, the surface warms rapidly in comparison to pre-existing fractures which are insulated from atmospheric conditions. This creates a thermal gradient between the fracture and rock surface—during the day, the surface is warmer than fractures, whereas at night the fractures are insulated from cooling and remain at higher temperatures than the surface. As the climate warms, this effect will be exacerbated. Repeated warming and cooling will increase the gradient of temperature between the surface and fractures, promoting processes such as freeze-thaw and thermal weathering which are predicated on thermal cyclicity. Shifts in the amount of precipitation may also play a role. In areas where climate change will bring increased rain and snowfall, moisture conditions will raise the likelihood for freeze-thaw expansion in rock. This further raises the likelihood for fractures to grow. Why Should I Care? The Niagara Escarpment is well integrated into urban infrastructure. Rapid rates of weathering and the location of exposed rock walls poses significant safety risks to commuters and pedestrians alike. The portion of the escarpment which passes through the city of Hamilton, Ontario is a pertinent example. Between 2007 and 2017, there were nearly 40 damage claims from falling rocks, and eight major rock falls over a two-year span each incurring $25,000–$500,000 in costs. While the city spends $300,000 annually to update preventative erosion measures, research suggests that numerous areas remain susceptible to rockfall and require $12 million in protective measures. Commuters along the Niagara Escarpment routinely experience rock hazards, such as a 2016 event in which a truck-sized boulder nearly struck cars along the 403 Highway. These issues are not unique to the Niagara Escarpment alone—geological landforms in all temperate environments

Scientific Ocean Drilling with the JOIDES Resolution: A summary

Have you ever wondered how scientists study the rocks and sand on the bottom of the ocean? The International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) is a research program dedicated to investigating sediments and rocks at the bottom of the ocean as a way to understand the history and structure of the Earth as well as the processes that shape our planet. IODP is funded by the US National Science Foundation and by national research agencies in 25 countries around the world. To be able to do the research as planned they need a research vessel that has the capability to collect rock and sediment samples from deep in the ocean. One of those vessels is called the JOIDES Resolution (often called The JR; see photo below). The JR has an international crew of seafarers, drillers, scientists and engineers all with the goal of improving our understanding of how geology, oceans, life and the atmosphere interact on Earth and how these systems have evolved over millions of years. Scientific ocean drilling has been a highly successful international collaboration for more than 50 years. The first ocean drilling vessel, before the JR, was a famous ship, Glomar Challenger, that roamed the world’s oceans from the late 60’s until the early ‘80s and directly contributed to our understanding of tectonic plates and how they form (see maps below). Today, the JR conducts 4 to 5 expeditions every year collecting samples and data of oceanic crust and sediments from all over the oceans to continue to build a better understanding of our planet, both past and present. Below are some example questions that were asked when the JR and predecessors have gone out on research expeditions: How is the ocean crust formed at ocean ridges? How does the ocean crust react with seawater and change over time? What were climate and oceans like during different times in Earth’s past and can we learn about future climate change? How has life evolved in the oceans? If you can ask a question, they want to answer it. The JR is venturing out to sea yet again this year to complete the IODP Expedition 393, the final chapter of a four-year expedition research project called the South Atlantic Transect. The last time this transect was visited to this extent was with the Glomar Challenger back in the 1960’s. The sites run perpendicular to the western flank of the Mid Atlantic Ridge, a range of submarine mountains that runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean where new oceanic crust is made and moves laterally (to the side) as it cools and sinks. This allows many processes related to ocean crust formation and aging to be studied. The Expedition 393 science team includes an array of different science fields. For instance, the team includes geoscientists that will be studying the microscopic fossils that can be found preserved within the ocean sediment. Microscopic refers to a significantly small item that requires the use of a microscope to see it. The science team also includes microbiologists that study the microscopic living organisms that are in the sediment and rock of the ocean floor! This addition to the research will help us better understand the extent of life on our planet. You can read more about the South Atlantic Transect 2 and the expeditions that came before it on the blog of the JR. You can also partake in the adventure and join the Onboard Outreach Officer, Tessa Peixoto, virtually on Zoom for a free ship tour. Expedition 393 will happen between June 7 and August 7, 2022. Whilst on the tour you will have the chance to speak to the scientists on board and ask them questions of what it is like to do research at sea. Email thejoidesresolution@gmail.com to find out more about how to sign up! Sources: Earth’s tectonic plates, Image, Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/plate-tectonics#/media/1/463912/172045, June 11, 2022 IODP – International Ocean Discovery Program IODP Canada The value of rocks.A poem by Tessa Peixoto What is a rock,If not shelter from a predator,Or weather.What is a rockIf not a solid place to attach one’s holdfast.What is a rock,If not a used to be skipped across a calm surface of water. A rock is just that.A shelter.An anchor.A form of entertainment. A rock is also a storyteller.Its parts,If you pay attention long enough are called elements.Its parts,are the keys to understanding history.History that tells of death, change, and renewal. So…What is a rock,If not the burial grounds of fallen foraminifera.What is a rock,If not filled with crystalline rivers of minerals.What is a rock,If not the sedimentary pages of a changing ocean. -Tessa Peixoto, the author of this article, is the Onboard Outreach Officer for Expedition 393. You can find her poem here and the JOIDES resolution blog here.

Two photos of Niagara Falls. The one on the left is grey and cloudy. The one on the right is bright and sunny. In front of the photos text reads: "Geoscience Today. GeoscienceINFO celebrates five years of serving the public."

GeoscienceINFO Celebrates Five Years of Serving the Public

The APGO Education Foundation is thrilled to celebrate five wonderful years of sharing our favourite subject with you – geoscience — via GeoscienceINFO.com. The Foundation itself was created in October 2014 as a charitable foundation with two main goals in mind: to help people in their journey in becoming geoscientists, and to provide accurate, reliable, and up-to-date information about geoscience to the public. We began our mission to help inform the public about geoscience by creating our website GeoscienceINFO.com on June 8, 2017. In the beginning, we had two main features we wanted to share with the public: geology-based virtual field trips of locations across Ontario, and short-but-informative Geovideos that explain geoscientific concepts and processes. To provide the highest-quality information to the public, we knew we couldn’t rush things. We started with one virtual field trip, one Geovideo, and a whole lot of enthusiasm! Virtual Field Trips The first virtual field trip released on GeoscienceINFO.com was of the Niagara area in southwestern Ontario, and this virtual field trip continues to be popular today. We were so excited to bring this field trip you the public that we first visited the Niagara peninsula in January to take photos! Needless to say, many of these photos were eventually replaced once the ice thawed and the trees started to bloom. Using Google Earth, seven stops in the Niagara peninsula were chosen for their geological relevance. Each stop has a detailed description of the geological history and relevance of that location. Because we know that learning is a highly visual process, we wanted to include as many photos of each stop as possible. This is why we have a well-stocked section at each stop of photos of the outcrop from as many angles as possible. In addition, we have a section of hand samples to give you a look at what the rocks and minerals are like close-up. Since 2017, we have continued to add more virtual field trips from locations all over Ontario. As of June 2022, we now have 17 virtual field trips available to the public, ranging from Thunder Bay to Ottawa. To better serve our public, we upgraded our platform in 2021 to the latest ArcGIS-based software offered by ESRI. This means our maps are quick to load, easy to navigate, and are supplemented by many high-quality and fast downloading photos. Geovideos In November 2017 we released our first Geovideo entitled “Where Does My Water Come From?” This two-and-a-half-minute video explains from where most people in Ontario receive their drinking water. Did you know that half of people in Ontario get their water from surface water bodies such as the Great Lakes? Knowing that piquing people’s interest is best for active learning and retaining facts, we wanted the Geovideos we released to be relatively short, accurate, and full of interesting facts like this that people can think about long after the Geovideo is over. Since 2017, we have released a number of Geovideos that explain geological processes and concepts. Our Geovideo “How Do Volcanoes Form?”, released in 2018, is our most popular video to-date with over 115,000 views! In 2020 we released a six-part series of Geovideos as part of our “Why Geoscience is Important” spotlight. From metal and mineral exploration to remediating disturbed lands, geoscience is associated with a broad range of activities and processes. As the world moves toward renewable energy sources, mining will continue to play a vital role as we need minerals such as copper, silicon, and silver to construct solar panels to harvest the Sun’s energy. Our Geovideos highlight the continuing importance of geoscience and answer commonly asked questions about various subject matter. Story Maps Our virtual field trips are set up like the university geology field trips that professors and students go on to learn more about geoscience. It’s important to us that everyone can experience this type of learning atmosphere. As such, they do have some limitations. Although our virtual field trips are full of information and photos, we wanted to give people more in order to truly immerse them in the area about which they are learning. ESRI’s new Story Map platform was the perfect way for us to do that. In November 2021, we released the first Story Map, of the Arkona area, at the Geological Association of Canada/Mineralogical Association of Canada (GAC MAC) conference in London, Ontario. In addition to the Arkona virtual field trip, presented in a new format, this Story Map provides a very detailed geological history of the region, and more paleontological environmental information, supplemented with a broad range of media types. Video segments of interviews with professors and local experts, drone footage, 360-degree photos, animations, 3D LiDAR imaging, and unique graphics are all included to provide a multi-faceted learning experience. Audio is also provided for all text, to augment accessibility options for the reader. We are so excited to be able to offer both options to learn about an area: our traditional virtual field trip, and our detailed Story Map. We will be creating Story Maps that will accompany all our virtual field trips, so be sure to look for these in the future! Beneath Your Feet: A Geoscience Blog One of our latest releases is the launch of our blog, Beneath Your Feet: A Geoscience Blog. We weren’t joking around when we decided to release a blog! Veronica Klassen, who has completed an M.Sc. in Science Communications, joined our team in 2021 to oversee the production, launch, and organization of our new blog. Because geoscience (like all science) is a dynamic field that is constantly growing, learning, and expanding, it’s important that we let the public know about the latest research. We publish articles bi-weekly, and articles are written by either our staff or by guest writers who are experts in their field. We feature columns by geoscience professors, students studying geoscience, licensed Professional Geoscientists (P.Geo.s), and local experts. If you’re practicing or studying geoscience and have something you’d like to communicate with the

The Significance of Ontario’s Ring of Fire to Canada’s Climate Goals

When you hear the term “Ring of Fire,” you might think of Johnny Cash’s famous song by that name. Or, if you remember grade school geography, you might think of the Pacific Ring of Fire—an area of high volcanic activity that surrounds the Pacific Ocean like a ring. But you probably haven’t heard of the third use of the phrase—Ontario’s Ring of Fire. In Ontario, the Ring of Fire is an area of 5000 square kilometres located approximately 400km north of Thunder Bay where there are significant mineral deposits. It’s called the Ring of Fire for two reasons. #1: If you look at a magnetic map of the area, there is a clearly delineated arc of responses. And #2: The founder of Noront, the mining company who first discovered the minerals in the area, was a huge fan of Johnny Cash. The Ring of Fire is made up of shared lands governed by 9 different First Nations. In recent news, the Ring of Fire has come to public attention due to concern from First Nations communities who are opposing the development of mines in the area and criticizing the government’s insufficient involvement with Indigenous communities in decision making processes. Let’s take a step back and look at why the Ring of Fire is geologically and environmentally important. Geologically, the Ring of Fire is an arcuate belt of Archean (approx. 2,750 MA) mafic and ultramafic rocks surrounding an intrusion of granodiorite. Based on exploration to date, the area is rich in deposits of important metals such as nickel, chromium, copper, zinc, and platinum. Since the Ring of Fire’s mineral deposits were discovered in 2007, mining companies have been eager to start developing mines in the area. Some of these deposits would likely be amenable to profitable underground mining (e.g., Noront’s Eagle’s Nest), but most of the chromite deposits discovered to date would require open-pit mining to extract them. There have been estimates of the total in-situ value of the Ring of Fire deposits ranging from $30 billion to $60 billion. However, the investment and costs required to extract them may reach similar levels, such that the actual economics of mining some of these minerals in the area remain to be established. Ecologically, the Ring of Fire is situated in the Hudson Bay Lowlands, which is the largest peatland in North America. Peatlands are waterlogged ecosystems where organic matter never fully decomposes, leading to the buildup of peat. This means that peatlands store large amounts of carbon from partially decomposed organic matter. The peatlands also absorb carbon dioxide from the air, acting as a filter for CO2. Peatlands are therefore important in storing and retaining carbon to mitigate the effects of climate change. As several Indigenous Chiefs have noted, disturbing these peatlands would release their stored carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, the release of CO2 would go against the promises made by the Canadian Government at the Paris Accord to mitigate climate change. The potential impacts upon the environment from mining in the Ring of Fire are substantial, particularly if it was proposed to extract chromite (the chromium mineral) by open-pit methods. Not only would that process disturb the peatlands, potentially releasing stored carbon from the peatlands, but surface disposal of mine waste and tailings would (at least in part) be deposited on top of the peat. Indigenous communities have also emphasized the potential negative impacts on surface and groundwater from mining, as several First Nations live directly downstream from the Ring of Fire and would be negatively affected by any toxic runoff or damage to the rivers. The Canadian and Provincial governments have made a goal to invest in the production of electric cars to decrease Canada’s emissions from gas- and diesel-powered engines. The mineral deposits in the Ring of Fire contain nickel and copper, essential minerals for building electric car batteries. In March 2022 the Provincial government released a plan to build electric cars from start to finish in Ontario and has stated that this would require minerals to be mined in Ontario as a first step along the production line. Ontario already produces both nickel and copper from existing mines in the province, so new developments in the Ring of Fire would be complementary to those currently operating and could add significantly to the resources available for incorporation in electric vehicles as their production is ramped up over the next few years. Opening mines in the Ring of Fire could be a great boost for Ontario’s economy, as they would generate many job opportunities for local communities. Several of the communities surrounding the Ring of Fire are not currently accessible by road, so building infrastructure to support the mines would connect these communities to Ontario’s provincial highway system and allow electricity to be delivered by powerlines rather than diesel generators, thus reducing the carbon footprint of those communities. There are many different factors to consider when deciding whether mining developments in the Ring of Fire should go forward. Included amongst these is weighing the cost of releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere with the potential decrease of released carbon from electric vehicles. Additionally, the potential impact on the watershed or the increase in jobs for First Nation communities should be considered. These factors are some of the issues that comprehensive Environmental Assessments are designed to evaluate thoroughly. One of the major considerations in any new mining development proposal is the duty to consult and engage with local and affected communities. In this case there is strong opposition from some local Indigenous communities. In early January 2021, groups from the 9 affected First Nation communities met with the Minister of Environment and Climate Change Steven Guilbeault to discuss the upcoming Regional Impact Assessment that is planned for the area. The goal of the RIA is to quantify the extent of the ecological impact of mining on the Ring of Fire. Soon after the meeting, chiefs from Attawapiskat, Eabametoong, Kashechewan Cree, Fort Albany, and Neskantaga

Aerial photo of Toronto with CN tower and skyscrapers. In front of photo text reads "Geoscience Today. Contrary to popular belief, Eastern Canada is more at risk of earthquakes than perceived."

Contrary to popular belief, Eastern Canada is more at risk of earthquakes than perceived

Author: Alexander Lewis Peace, Assistant Professor (Structural Geology), McMaster UniversityThis article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article here. Most Canadians believe that the greatest national risk of a devastating earthquake lies in British Columbia. The whole Pacific northwest coast, with its rugged topography and history of the San Francisco and Los Angeles earthquakes farther south, is what typically comes to mind when we talk about the “big one” that has yet to hit. We want to change that perception while there’s time. A closer look at the complex factors at play, both under and on the Earth’s surface, shows that some of the worst risk is actually where Canadians are probably least expecting it: in a zone running from the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence River that includes major cities like Toronto, Hamilton, Ottawa, Montréal and Québec City. Experienced preparedness It’s true that the same faults that put California and parts of the West Coast of the United States at risk also make B.C. a serious earthquake concern. The notorious “Pacific Ring of Fire,” where massive tectonic plates are constantly threatening to reshape the landscape as they shift, collide and overlap, is aptly named. It’s safe to say coastal B.C. has a culture of earthquake readiness. People on the West Coast are much more aware and better prepared. They are familiar with emergency protocols, and many keep a survival kit handy in case a quick exit becomes necessary. Seismic monitoring is abundant, and far more buildings are designed or retrofitted to mitigate the potential for serious earthquake damage. This is not the case in southern Ontario and southwestern Québec, even though the risk is significant as more than half of Canada’s population lives in this vulnerable corridor. What is the source of this complacency? Understanding risk It likely has to do with the type of risk. In Eastern Canada, the threat is not directly from the interplay between plates of the Earth, as it is in the west. In Ontario and Québec, the risk is from the less sexy but still deadly intraplate activity — seismic activity that occurs in the middle of tectonic plates which are not directly associated with plate boundaries. Intraplate areas also have faults. Some, dating as far back as the formation of the continents, can be reactivated under certain stresses, such as when pressure on the edges of plates thousands of kilometres away push on them, causing them to move. Lines of weakness dating back millions of years can become hazardous once again when new stresses come into play. When the last of the glaciers receded about 11,000 years ago, for example, their massive weight left the Earth’s surface dented. That’s a long time to us, but it’s a snap of the fingers in geological time. In places where the ground has not yet “popped” back into place, it is overdue to do just that, potentially violently pushing people, buildings and infrastructure out of the way. Earthquakes happen all the time in Canada. There are about 4,000 every year, most of them too small or too remote to notice. But from time to time, there are much stronger quakes. A disproportionate number of those have happened in Eastern Canada, especially in the Ottawa Valley and western St. Lawrence Valley, in seismic zones that include Ottawa, Montréal and Québec City, but also farther west, in the highly populated seismic zones of the lower Great Lakes. We are not the first to suggest these hazards in Ontario and Québec need more attention, but our recent research confirms these risks are real and the threat is imminent. Reading the landscape In Canada, there isn’t a very long record of instrument-recorded seismological activity, especially in the eastern region, but we do have abundant physical evidence of significant earthquakes from the past, which still remains the best predictor of future events. The bottoms of major lakes in Ontario and Québec, for example, provide a significant and still visible record of sediment upheaval that could only have been caused by major earthquakes long before human settlement. As scientists we feel bound not to panic anyone unduly. At the same time, we feel a duty to offer warnings where they are needed, and this is certainly one of those instances. The risk in Eastern Canada has less to do with magnitude, which can be measured on the familiar Richter scale, and more with vulnerability. A lower magnitude quake that strikes in a vulnerable area, such as a densely populated city like Montréal, can still be catastrophic, especially if it happens at the wrong time of day, such as rush hour or in the middle of the night. Predicting the timing of earthquakes is still beyond the reach of science, and even if we knew precisely when and where a quake was coming, there would still be nothing we can do to stop it. What we can do is take action to mitigate harm from seismic events through infrastructure design, pinpointing more specific areas of heightened risk through research and making sure that resources, including insurance, are available for recovery. In Canada, most of the anticipation of big earthquakes focuses on the Pacific coast. We’d like everyone to add the Great Lakes and the western St. Lawrence region to that mental file — and to be ready. I am a structural geologist leading the McMaster Structural Geology and Tectonics Group, in the School of Earth, Environment and Society at McMaster University. I research deformation processes and associated hazards as well as resources. I am particularly interested in rifting and breakup, rift-related magmatism, seismic hazards, and structural inheritance. Geographically, I have worked around the North Atlantic, with a particular emphasis on Eastern Canada. The nature of my work requires a multifaceted approach incorporating a wide variety of approaches and methodologies such as: seismic interpretation, field-based studies, numerical modelling, petrology, structural modelling and geochemistry.

A Celebration of Kingston Geology

We at the APGO Education Foundation are always looking for an excuse to celebrate geology. What better way to do that than to sing the geological praises of the Kingston area! On Saturday, May 7, 2022, the APGO Education Foundation and Mining Matters will be hosting a table at the Science Rendezvous event in Kingston, Ontario, at the Leon’s Centre. We hope that you will drop by and talk a bit of shop with us, because we haven’t been able to talk about geology with you in person for so long! This year our theme is “The Geology of Kingston.” From May 7-22, we will be offering a geology themed scavenger hunt where you can earn your digital “Geo-Explorer Badge” of Kingston, and a chance to win one of five cool prizes. Choose from a list of geologically interesting rocks listed on our site, then visit a minimum of six of those rocks located either on Queen’s campus or along the Kingston Waterfront. Take an original photo of the rocks you visit, then submit them to us online. That’s it! If you have visited the correct rocks and submitted an original photo, then you will qualify to win one of five beautiful geology textbooks. Five winners will be randomly selected from qualifying entries. You can also visit us at our booth on May 7th to look at some rock samples of Kingston and talk about how they formed. Did you know that Kingston is also called the Limestone City? People used to build limestone buildings right on top of the limestone they excavated to make them! But limestone isn’t all that Kingston has to offer. Not even a little bit. To say that Kingston has a complicated past would be a big understatement. The area shows evidence of so many geologic events throughout the past billion-plus years that it requires a lot of detective work by geologists to try and piece these events together. Perhaps we’ll never know the full detailed story; however, we can be sure it will give geologists something to think about for centuries to come. To the northeast of Kingston lies a strip of Precambrian rock called the Frontenac Arch. It connects the Precambrian rocks of Algonquin Park to the northwest to those of the Adirondack Mountains to the southeast. The rocks themselves were formed between 1.1 to 1.4 billion years ago, the later stages of which were thought to be a time when there was quite a bit of volcanic activity, resulting in a lot of magma being deposited on the continent1. As if all this magma spewing all over the ground wasn’t enough excitement, the igneous rocks that formed from this magmatism were then deformed due to a process called metamorphism. This metamorphism was a result of an incredibly massive mountain-building event, or what geoscientists call “orogenesis”. This mountain building event is called the Grenville Orogeny, and it lasted until about 980 million years ago. The mountain range itself was massive – it ran from Labrador, Canada, down to Mexico, in a northeast to southwest direction. The mountains formed when at least two continental landmasses collided with Laurentia, the large North American continental landmass at the time. The term “collide” implies an immediate event. But the movement of continental plates is not instantaneous; average plate movement is 10 cm per year. While this rate of movement might seem inconsequential at first, remember that continents are ridiculously massive in size and just because they come in contact with another on-coming continent does not mean they stop moving! Once a continent collides with another continent head-on, the ground starts to buckle and has nowhere to go but up. Think about the last time you shoveled your driveway (brr!). When you put your shovel down, the snow is flat and beautiful, just as it was deposited. When you start to push your shovel though, the snow buckles and builds upwards, forming little mountain-like structures made of snow on your shovel. In orogenesis, instead of snow, the ground itself is pushed upward on a massive scale, forming mountains. Over many millions of years, the Grenville Orogeny was formed in North America, its western edge giving Kingston, Ontario a high five. You might be thinking “Wait, I’ve been to Kingston and there weren’t any mountains there!” You’re right… and you’re wrong. Like all good things, even mountains must come to an end. Once the continents stopped pushing into each other, the ground was no longer being pushed upwards and the mountain building phase ended. With no upward building, the mountainous sediments had nowhere to go but down. Over the next several hundred millions of years, the powerful effects of weathering and erosion wore the mountains down until not much remained but their roots. When you walk over the Frontenac Arch, you are walking on the roots of an ancient mountain! At one point in time, these very rocks were at the bottom of a mountain as tall as the Himalayan Mountains. With that amount of weight sitting on top of you, you can imagine things would get pretty uncomfortable. The rocks found in the roots of a mountain are commonly subjected to metamorphism. Because of the high temperatures and pressures there, they undergo deformation, which alters the original (or “parent”) rock to form a secondary, and ultimately, metamorphic rock. For example, if a granite rock is buried and subjected to high temperatures and pressures, it can turn into the metamorphic rock gneiss. When you stroll over the Frontenac Arch, you see lots of granite and its metamorphic product gneiss. You’ll also see marble, syenite, monzonite, migmatite, gabbro, quartzite and pegmatite2. As millions of years passed, the North American continent moved so that what is now Kingston was positioned near the equator. By the mid Cambrian Period (approximately 520 million years ago) this area became a shallow tropical sea –a stark contrast to its volcanic phase 700 million years before! By this time, life was in full bloom in

Fascinating Geological Features near Peterborough, Ontario

If you’ve ever wanted to time travel, looking at rock outcrops probably wasn’t your first thought. But if you know where to look, you can see a glimpse of history written in the rock layers.

Uncut natural diamond crystal embedded in a rock. On top of the photo text reads "Geoscience Today. Diamonds in the rough: what kimberlites tell us about Earth's interior"

Diamonds in the Rough: What Kimberlites Tell Us About Earth’s Interior

Everyone recognizes a diamond when they see one. Mounted on a ring or embedded in a necklace, these gemstones are prized for their use in jewelry around the world. What many people don’t realize, however, is that diamonds offer much more than commercial value. While the use of diamonds has been traced back to ancient times, large-scale modern diamond mining began in the late 1860s with the discovery of diamonds in Kimberly, South Africa. The rock from which the diamonds were extracted was creatively named kimberlite, after the town. Today, kimberlite is by far the most important source of naturally occurring diamonds, and deposits are found around the world. Diamonds originate from deep in the mantle, hundreds of kilometres beneath Earth’s surface. A common misconception is that diamonds are formed through the metamorphism of coal. This is not the case – although they are both composed of carbon, coal deposits are a result of the burial of plants, whereas diamonds are much older than the first plants on Earth! The journey of a diamond from the mantle to the surface is fascinating, and to properly set the stage, we need to first learn about plate tectonics. Large, rigid continental plates move slowly on Earth’s surface, repeatedly reshaping our continents over millions of years. In some parts of the continental lithosphere, there are massive and ancient blocks that haven’t been a part of subduction or continental rifting processes in billions of years. These are called cratons, and they form the geologically stable interiors of present-day continents. Cratons are found on all continents, including North America; for example, the Superior Province extends across Ontario and Manitoba and forms the core of the Canadian Shield. Typically, cratons are older than 2.5 billion years, meaning they come from a geological eon called the Archean. These cratons are thick enough to reach into the mantle, creating the perfect environment for diamonds to grow – anywhere else, and the pressures and temperatures are not suitable for the crystallization of carbon atoms in diamond form. It’s on the surface of these ancient cratons that diamond-rich kimberlites are found, but the kimberlites themselves are significantly younger than their Archean hosts; most are younger than 150 million years old. So how did they get there? Transporting a diamond from beneath an Archean craton to the surface of Earth is no easy feat, not least of all because the conditions of Earth’s surface are far below a diamond’s “comfort zone”, so to speak. If you were to bring a diamond to the surface at normal geological speeds, it would convert to graphite, the physical arrangement of carbon atoms that is stable at normal pressure and temperature conditions. To keep its diamond passengers happy, the magma must follow a few rules. Kimberlite magmas are full of volatiles, like water and carbon dioxide, and are more magnesium-rich than typical magmas. This type of chemistry produces low-density, low-viscosity magma that wants to separate from the mantle and rise to the surface in a truly remarkable way. Geological models show that kimberlitic magma begins to move upward at speeds ranging from 4–20 metres per second, propelled to even faster speeds by decreasing pressures towards an eventual 200 m/s explosive eruption on the surface. Assuming a starting depth of about 300 kilometres below the surface, a kimberlite could complete its diamond delivery within 15 hours! Considering that many geological features occur over millions of years, kimberlites move from the mantle to the surface relatively instantaneously. The combination of the unique volatile-rich magma chemistry and rapid ascent help to keep the diamonds stable, so they don’t convert to graphite or dissolve into the magma. This eruptive transport gives kimberlite pipes their characteristic “carrot” shape that is sometimes accompanied by a fallback of ejected pyroclastic material, like ash and rock fragments. Since diamonds do not crystallize within the original kimberlite magma and are instead picked up from the mantle as the magma ascends, they’re called xenocrysts, or foreign crystals. But while diamonds tend to get most of the attention, kimberlites can also carry other mantle rock fragments (xenoliths) to the surface. In fact, diamonds themselves often contain mineral inclusions, and while these are heartlessly referred to as flaws by a jeweller, they can be immensely important for understanding the pressure and temperature conditions of diamond growth. So, not only are kimberlites an important source of economic geology, but they can also provide geologists with information about the chemistry and conditions of the deep mantle that we would otherwise be unable to observe. Sadly, there hasn’t been much kimberlite activity in the last 50 million years, which means that the diamonds on our surface today are likely the only ones we’ll ever find on Earth. Even though kimberlite deposits occur on all continents, they can be somewhat difficult to track down. Rocks from the mantle tend to be unstable on the surface of Earth, so even though kimberlites are much younger than their surrounding rock, their composition makes them more vulnerable to weathering and erosion processes. However, specific minerals in kimberlites, like garnet and ilmenite, can survive weathering and in the case of many deposits in Canada, glacial transport. When the kimberlite deposit is hit by an advancing glacier, resistant minerals from the kimberlite are carried along by the ice and exploration geologists can follow the path of these minerals against the direction of glacier transport to find the source kimberlite pipe. Indicator minerals are abundant in kimberlites and relatively rare in other igneous rocks, making them a very useful tool for finding a kimberlite pipe that today might be a crater filled by water or vegetation. This method, also known as drift prospecting, is widely used across Ontario and the northern territories to search for diamond deposits because of Canada’s extensive glacial history. While diamonds are relatively rare and difficult to find on Earth, they’re actually exceedingly common in space. However, at a billionth of a meter in diameter, they’re nowhere near big enough for an